V. Life's Corporeal Evolution Develops, Encodes and Organizes Itself: An Earthtwinian Genesis Synthesis

6. Dynamic Fractal Network Ecosystems

Turner, Monica, et al. Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice. New York: Springer, 2001. A new textbook that emphasizes the conception of ecosystems as self-organized, fractally scaled dynamic networks, which illustrates how this paradigm has gained acceptance.

van de Koppel, Johan, et al. Experimental Evidence for Spatial Self-Organization and Its Emergent Effects in Mussel Bed Ecosystems. Science. 322/739, 2008. Ecologists from the Netherlands, Wales, and France offer as confirmation to the theoretical work of Simon Levin in Fragile Dominion and in Ricard Sole and Jorge Bascompte’s Self-Organization in Complex Ecosystems this detailed case study of mussel bed geometries in the tidal flats of the Menai Strait near Bangor, UK.

Spatial self-organization is the main theoretical explanation for the global occurrence of regular or otherwise coherent spatial patterns in ecosystems. Using mussel beds as a model ecosystem, we provide an experimental demonstration of spatial self-organization. (739)

vandermeer, John and Ivette Perfecto. Ecological Complexity and Agroecology. London: Routledge, 2017. University of Michigan senior professors of ecology, evolutionary biology, natural resources and environments (search) provide a unique textbook for this subject which can also represent a 2010s revolutionary, advantageous synthesis of this vital sustenance resource with nature’s innate underlay of self-organizing network patterns and processes. Chapter titles such as Multidimensionality, Coupled Oscillatory, Stochasticity and Critical Transitions discuss and apply the latest ecosmos code mathematical guidance. OK

While the science of ecology should be the basis of agroecological planning, many analysts have out-of-date ideas about contemporary ecology. Ecology has come a long way since the old days of "the balance of nature" and other notions of how ecological systems function. In this context, the new science of complexity has become vitally important in the modern science of ecology. The book’s organization consists of an introductory chapter, and a second chapter providing some of the background to basic ecological topics as they are relevant to agroecosystrems (e.g., soil biology and pest control). The core of the book consists of seven chapters on key intersecting themes of ecological complexity, including issues such as spatial patterns, network theory and tipping points, illustrated by examples from agroecology and agricultural systems from around the world.

Vandermeer, John and Senay Yitbarek. Self-Organized Spatial Pattern Determines Biodiversity in Spatial Competition. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 300/48, 2011. By way of sophisticated complexity mathematics, University of Michigan bioecologists confirm a natural balance but in an actual case of a “competitive coexistence” that serves both creature and colony. These endemic “competitive relationships” then generate previously unrecognized spatial mosaics that serve to maintain ecosystem viability.

In a simple cellular automata model it is shown that self-organization of spatial pattern in a community of strong competitors may generate a previously unrecognized mechanism of species richness determination. Employing some well-known general properties of interspecific competition, we elaborate a theoretical framework that generates both spatial mosaics and spiral waves within the same conceptual framework, dependent on the covariance of competition. We demonstrate that the qualitative nature of the spatial pattern depends on the “balance” of competition and that the number of species retained in the community depends on this spatial patterning. (Abstract, 48)

We examine the process of self-organization of spatial pattern in a community of strong competitors and show how the details of the self-organizing process generate a previously unrecognized mechanism of species richness determination. (48) The existence of spatial pattern in biological communities is familiar. Many organisms, especially sessile forms, exist in dramatic nonrandom patterns, a phenomenon well-known to early naturalists. (48)

Vandermeer, John, et al. New Forms of Structure in Ecosystems Revealed with the Kuramoto Model. Royal Society Open Science. February, 2021. University of Michigan sustainability enviromentalists including Ivette Perfecto post a latest advance of their project to better understand diverse flora and fauna biotas by way of nonlinear network complexities. (Also at arXiv:2006.16006) It opens with a review of prior glimpses of a natural, endemic nonlinearity in formative effect. Into the 2010s, global computational and communicative efforts are now well able to quantify independent, mathematical, complex adaptive self-organizations. This paper then cites a new perception that ecosystems are composed of periodic, interactive, synchronized oscillations between transitional phases such as predator/prey, invasion/resistance and so on. Thus, even myriad ecologies are found to be defined by a “chimera” condition, similar to other reams such as brains and metabolisms.

For a series of related work, see Viewing Communities as Coupled Oscillators: Elementary Forms from Lotka and Volterra to Kuramoto by Zachary Haijan-Forooshani and John Vandermeer in bioRxiv (May 27, 2020), The Community Ecology of Herbivore Regulation in an Agroecosystem: Lessons from Complex Systems by John Vandermeer et al in BioScience (69/12, 2019, reviewed herein), Chimera Patterns Induced by Distance-Dependent Power-Law Coupling in Ecological Networks by Tanmoy Banerjee, et al in Physical Review E (94/032206, 2016) and Synchronization Unveils the Organization of Ecological Networks with Positive and Negative Interactions by Andrea, Giron, et al in Chaos (26/065302, 2016). A unique text for this ecosmic ecosystem revolution is Ecological Complexity and Agroecology by John Vandermeer and Ivette Perfecto (Routledge, 2017, search).

Ecological systems, as is often noted, are complex. Equally notable is the common generalization that complex systems tend to be oscillatory, which could provide insights into the structure of ecological systems. A popular analytical tools for such studies is the Kuramoto model of coupled oscillators. Using a well-studied system of pests and their enemies in an agroecosystem, we apply this stylized model to ask whether its actual natural history is reflected in the dynamics of the qualitatively instantiated Kuramoto model. Indeed, synchrony groups with an overlying chimeric structure, depending on the strength of the inter-oscillator coupling, are found. We conclude that the Kuramoto model presents a novel window to better understand the interactive forms of ecological systems. (Abstract)

Vandermeer, John, et al. The Community Ecology of Herbivore Regulation in an Agroecosystem: Lessons from Complex Systems. BioScience. 69/12, 2019. With 30 authors from 4 continents, this article well represents the 21st century discovery that flora and fauna environs are indeed graced and structured by a domain of nonlinear mathematic phenomena, just as everywhere else. In regard, an application of theoretical aspects, as the Abstract notes, onto invasive pest and pathogen management for coffee growers results in advanced, beneficial results.

Whether an ecological community is controlled from above or below remains a popular framework and takes on especially important meaning in agroecosystems. We describe the regulation from above of three coffee herbivores, a leaf herbivore, a seed predator, and a plant pathogen by various natural enemies, emphasizing the remarkable complexity involved. We emphasize the intersection of classical ecology with the burgeoning field of complex systems with reference to chaos, critical transitions, hysteresis, basin or boundary collision, and spatial self-organization, all aimed at the applied question of pest control in the coffee agroecosystem. (Abstract excerpt)

Regulation of this herbivore is therefore effected through a complex system involving a Turing process, nonlinear indirect interactions, critical transitions, hysteresis, chaos, basin or boundary collisions, and a hypergraph, all elements of the burgeoning field of complex systems. (984)

Vergnon, Remi, et al. Repeated Parallel Evolution Reveals Limiting Similarity in Subterranean Diving Beetles. American Naturalist. 182/1, 2013. Ecologists Vergnon, Egbert van Nes, and Marten Scheffer, Wageningen University, Netherlands, with Remko Leijs, Flinders University, Australia, study this invertebrate creature as a micro exemplar of how life’s dynamic course reveals evidence of a persistence convergence. Of further interest, as the Abstract notes, is that this group, as many others today, accept and attribute to a prior “evolutionary self-organization.” See also “Self-Organized Similarity, the Evolutionary Emergence of Groups of Similar Species” by Scheffer and van Nes in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (103/6230, 2006).

The theory of limiting similarity predicts that co-occurring species must be sufficiently different to coexist. Although this idea is a staple of community ecology, convincing empirical evidence has been scarce. Here we examine 34 subterranean beetle communities in arid inland Australia that share the same habitat type but have evolved in complete isolation over the past 5 million years. Although these communities come from a range of phylogenetic origins, we find that they have almost invariably evolved to share a sim8ilar size structure. The relative positions of coexisting species on the body size axis were significantly more regular across communities than would be expected by chance, with a size ratio, on average, of 1.6 between coexisting species. By contrast, species’ absolute body sizes varied substantially from one community to the next. This suggests that self-organized spacing according to limiting-similarity theory, as opposed to evolution toward preexisting fixed niches, shaped the communities. Using a model starting from random sets of founder species, we demonstrate that the patterns are indeed consistent with evolutionary self-organization. (Abstract)

Ecologists have long been puzzled by the fact that there are so many similar species in nature. Here we show that self-organized clusters of look-a-likes may emerge spontaneously from coevolution of competitors. The explanation is that there are two alternative ways to survive together: being sufficiently different or being sufficiently similar. Using a model based on classical competition theory, we demonstrate a tendency for evolutionary emergence of regularly spaced lumps of similar species along a niche axis. Indeed, such lumpy patterns are commonly observed in size distributions of organisms ranging from algae, zooplankton, and beetles to birds and mammals, and could not be well explained by earlier theory. Our results suggest that these patterns may represent self-constructed niches emerging from competitive interactions. (2006 PNAS Abstract)

Villegas, Pablo, et al. Evidence of Scale-free Clusters of Vegetation in Tropical Rainforests. arXiv:2301.05917. Into this year, Italian complexity theorists with several postings including Guido Caldarelli provide still more ways to quantify so to untangle and nature’s flora, in this case especially verdant jungles. As we have noted, circa 2002 when the section was first online, there were few efforts like this, any sense of a deep discernible basis hardly existed. Some two decades later, as we have been pleased to report, many contributions like this have indeed revealed an independent, endemic guidance.

Tropical rainforests exhibit a rich repertoire of spatial patterns emerging from intricate relationships between many species and their domain. In regard, the distribution of vegetation clusters can exemplify the underlying process regulating the ecosystem. Analyzing their presence at different resolution scales, we show the first robust evidence of diverse invariant foliage, suggesting the coexistence of multiple intertwined phases in the collective dynamics of tropical rainforests. As a quantified result we propose a predictor that could serve to monitor the ecological resilience of the world's 'green lungs.' (Excerpt edit)

Vivaldo, Gianna, et al. Network of Plants: How to Measure Similarity in Vegetable Species. arXiv:1602.05887. IMT School for Advanced Studies, Lucca and University of Firenze researchers including Guido Caldarelli cleverly show how nonlinear dynamic network theories equally applies to, and is exemplified by all manner of flora plant families. This quality is evident, for one instance, in the botanical “diaspore” process of seed dispersals. In our worldwise 21st century, nature’s rife “entanglements” at last become amenable to mathematical explanation and resolve so as to reveal and affirm this universal testament.

Despite the common misconception of nearly static organisms, plants do interact continuously with the environment and with each other. It is fair to assume that during their evolution they developed particular features to overcome problems and to exploit possibilities from environment. In this paper we introduce various quantitative measures based on recent advancements in complex network theory that allow to measure the effective similarities of various species. By using this approach on the similarity in fruit-typology ecological traits we obtain a clear plant classification in a way similar to traditional taxonomic classification. This result is not trivial, since a similar analysis done on the basis of diaspore morphological properties do not provide any clear parameter to classify plants species. Complex network theory can then be used in order to determine which feature amongst many can be used to distinguish scope and possibly evolution of plants. (Abstract)

Ward, Ashley, et al. Quorum Decision-Making Facilitates Information Transfer in Fish Schools. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105/6948, 2008. An international team of theoretical ecologists including Ian Couzin, David Sumpter and Jens Krause report that the ‘quorum-sensing’ activity found to cohere bacterial communities (‘Wisdom of the crowds’ and ‘swarm intelligence’ is also cited.) is likewise present in groups of organisms. By such lights, a further complex adaptive feature is identified that occurs and repeats at every instance and scale.

This study shows that effective and accurate information transfer in groups may be gained only through nonlinear responses of group members to each other, thus highlighting the importance of quorum decision-making. (6948)

West, Geoffrey and James Brown. Life’s Universal Scaling Laws. Physics Today. September, 2004. A review of the theory that common properties of biological networks can explain the organization and dynamics of living systems.

Among the many fundamental variables that obey such scaling laws….are metabolic rate, life span, growth rate, heart rate, lengths of aortas and genomes, tree height, mass of cerebral grey matter, density of mitochondria, and concentration of RNA. (36) The starting point was to recognize that highly complex, self-sustaining, reproducing, living structures require close integration of enormous numbers of localized microscopic units that need to be serviced in an approximately “democratic” and efficient fashion. (38) Thus, growth and life-history events are, in general, universal phenomena governed primarily be basic cellular properties and quarter-power scaling. (40)

Wiegand, Thorsten, et al. Latitudinal scaling of aggregation with abundance and coexistence in forests.. Nature. February 25, 2025. . Thirty-four ecologists mainly at the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Leipzig and also in Sri Lanka, the USA, China and Thailand describe their latest bioregional studies which have a wider and deeper inclusion of whole scale arboreal phenomena such as animal seed dispersal and mycorrhizal associations.

The search for simple principles that underlie the spatial structure and dynamics of plant communities is a prime naturalist endeavor. Here we present a comprehensive analysis of 720 tree species and their consequences for species coexistence and find that species with low abundance tend to be more spatially aggregated with a latitudinal gradient that increases from tropical to temperate forests. Our approach opens up new avenues for the integration such observations and underscores the need to view spatial patterns at the neighbourhood scale along with multiple ecological processes.

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